The Society of Jesus; a Network of Alliance
"At the beginning of the eighteenth century the Society of Jesus had managed to become every bit as controversial as it was popular, as hated, as it was loved."
Historian Jonathan Wright
Historian Jonathan Wright
Introduction
The Society of Jesus was founded as an order, which was in direct contact with the pope himself, in 1540. The Jesuits had a lot of alliances in the beginning of their existence, but because of different reasons this decreased. Their main alliances were the pope and Portugal, nevertheless the Society ceased to exist on orders of pope Clement XIV (r. 1769-1774) in 1773. The pope, however, did not have any choice because he was pressured by the Catholic countries like Spain, France and even Portugal. So how important was this network of alliance for the Jesuits and what happened that this network cannot stop the event of 1773?
The Society of Jesus was founded as an order, which was in direct contact with the pope himself, in 1540. The Jesuits had a lot of alliances in the beginning of their existence, but because of different reasons this decreased. Their main alliances were the pope and Portugal, nevertheless the Society ceased to exist on orders of pope Clement XIV (r. 1769-1774) in 1773. The pope, however, did not have any choice because he was pressured by the Catholic countries like Spain, France and even Portugal. So how important was this network of alliance for the Jesuits and what happened that this network cannot stop the event of 1773?
Benefits of Alliances
The Society of Jesuits had thus two strong alliances, namely the pope and Portugal; they also had strong links with Catholic kings where they acted as personal advisers. These alliances ensured great benefits. The order was founded by St. Ignatius Loyola (1491-1556) with the approval of Pope Paul III (r. 1434-1549) in 1540. The order was initiated by the Catholic Church for the spread of Christianity and the western customs; these missions were done through the Spanish and Portuguese empires. The order was, unlike other orders, less attached to a monastery and wanted to actively participate in the politics of the world. The Jesuits only declared their loyalty to the pope and they did not live by the vow of poverty. Also, the Jesuits were successful in crafting land and gained a lot of money with this. In Portugal, there were complaints from jealous governors, financial officers, magistrates and competitive landowners; they warned the king against the Jesuits. However, the kings of Portugal agreed with the idea that the Society had to have financial security. King Johan III (1501-1557) gave them thence territory in India in 1551, and in the years thereafter his grandson king Sebastian I (1554-1578) gave the Jesuits land in Brazil. They also were given privileges by Pope Gregory XIV (r. 1590-1591) in 1591, which no other order had.
The Society of Jesuits had thus two strong alliances, namely the pope and Portugal; they also had strong links with Catholic kings where they acted as personal advisers. These alliances ensured great benefits. The order was founded by St. Ignatius Loyola (1491-1556) with the approval of Pope Paul III (r. 1434-1549) in 1540. The order was initiated by the Catholic Church for the spread of Christianity and the western customs; these missions were done through the Spanish and Portuguese empires. The order was, unlike other orders, less attached to a monastery and wanted to actively participate in the politics of the world. The Jesuits only declared their loyalty to the pope and they did not live by the vow of poverty. Also, the Jesuits were successful in crafting land and gained a lot of money with this. In Portugal, there were complaints from jealous governors, financial officers, magistrates and competitive landowners; they warned the king against the Jesuits. However, the kings of Portugal agreed with the idea that the Society had to have financial security. King Johan III (1501-1557) gave them thence territory in India in 1551, and in the years thereafter his grandson king Sebastian I (1554-1578) gave the Jesuits land in Brazil. They also were given privileges by Pope Gregory XIV (r. 1590-1591) in 1591, which no other order had.
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The Changes
There were changes regarding the alliances in the eighteenth century. So became the power of Portugal considerably smaller, this had a lot of influences. The Jesuits had a monopoly on missionary missions in the Portuguese colonies, but in 1622 Pope Gregory XV (r. 1621-1623) stated that the task of converting the people of Asia was too big for Portugal and therefore the Jesuits. The world was, at this moment, still divided according to the Treaty of Tordesillas of 1494; which gave Portugal the east of the world with Brazil and Spain got the western regions of the line. When the other orders such as the Franciscans and the Dominicans arrived in China in 1632, there was a wave of criticism. They said that the Jesuits had failed their mission in China because they used the Chinese word for 'God' and furthermore Chinese rituals were still allowed. Rome sent Cardinal Charles-Thomas Maillard de Tournon (1668-1710) to China in 1703 , and he decided that Chinese rituals should be banned. King Peter II (1683-1706) of Portugal was furious about the fact that the pope sent Cardinal Tournon to China without first consulting him. Here is a change visible in the relationship between the alliances. After this the reputation of the Jesuits was damaged. But there were more changes going on, like the Enlightenment. This had as affect that the authority of the pope was doubted. Furthermore the kings became less powerful because institutions, like the French Parliament, were fighting agianst absolute monarchy. |
Primary Source
The primary source is written by Ippolito Desideri (1684-1733) who went on a mission to Tibet in 1714. My focus lies on the first part of the source because here you can see the problems the Jesuits had with the other orders, and the difficulties they faced. In 1703, Pope Clement XI (r. 1700-1721) stated in a decree that the Capuchins, a branch of the order of Franciscans, had the monopoly on missions to Tibet. ‘General’ Tamburin Michelangelo (1648-1730) of the Society of Jesus did not agree with this. He arranged with the Pope, by reflecting on their old alliance and by remembering that there were previous Jesuits mission to Tibet, an agreement. This had a result that the Society also received permission for a mission to Tibet. The Jesuit Desideri arrived in Goa (India) in 1715, from where he traveled to Delhi; here he met his travel partner Manoel Freyre. Together they went on the Jesuit mission to Tibet and finally arrived there in 1716. Freyre soon left Lhasa, the capital of Tibet, and went back to India. Freyre had a different mission than Desideri; He had been commissioned to spy on the Capuchins which were also present in Tibet. Desideri remained active in the Tibetan capital, along with other Capuchins missionaries; this caused tensions within both orders. In 1721 Desideri was called back by Pope Innocent XIII (r. 1721-1724). In this primary source are thus changes in the alliance visible; the pope gives a preference to the Capuchins and the two orders turn against each other. Nevertheless, the Pope feels obligated to the Jesuits, based on the alliance, to give them also permission to go on a mission to Tibet.
The primary source is written by Ippolito Desideri (1684-1733) who went on a mission to Tibet in 1714. My focus lies on the first part of the source because here you can see the problems the Jesuits had with the other orders, and the difficulties they faced. In 1703, Pope Clement XI (r. 1700-1721) stated in a decree that the Capuchins, a branch of the order of Franciscans, had the monopoly on missions to Tibet. ‘General’ Tamburin Michelangelo (1648-1730) of the Society of Jesus did not agree with this. He arranged with the Pope, by reflecting on their old alliance and by remembering that there were previous Jesuits mission to Tibet, an agreement. This had a result that the Society also received permission for a mission to Tibet. The Jesuit Desideri arrived in Goa (India) in 1715, from where he traveled to Delhi; here he met his travel partner Manoel Freyre. Together they went on the Jesuit mission to Tibet and finally arrived there in 1716. Freyre soon left Lhasa, the capital of Tibet, and went back to India. Freyre had a different mission than Desideri; He had been commissioned to spy on the Capuchins which were also present in Tibet. Desideri remained active in the Tibetan capital, along with other Capuchins missionaries; this caused tensions within both orders. In 1721 Desideri was called back by Pope Innocent XIII (r. 1721-1724). In this primary source are thus changes in the alliance visible; the pope gives a preference to the Capuchins and the two orders turn against each other. Nevertheless, the Pope feels obligated to the Jesuits, based on the alliance, to give them also permission to go on a mission to Tibet.
The Network of Alliance
The network that was covered is the network of alliance from the Society of Jesus. This also falls under the heading of religious networks with a framework of institutions. There is also a second framework of kings and additional countries. The network of the Jesuits is a 'centralized' network in which the countries, as 'nodes', are connected with 'ties' to the center point, namely the Vatican. By looking at the demise of the Jesuits from a network theory, the story becomes much clearer and can also connect all countries and popes in a way other theories cannot. This network of alliances has changed in various ways from 1540 to 1773. The large amount of land, money, popularity, alliances with kings, papal privileges and their influence on politics ensured that the Jesuits were considered a great danger. With other words people wanted to get rid of the Society. This was retained by their alliances the pope, Portugal and the kings of the Catholic countries. But in the eighteenth century everything changed. The monarchs did not have absolute power anymore so other men and institutes got a lot more influences. Furthermore, Portugal was no longer a world power and lost his influence. Also, through the Enlightenment there was a power shift in Europe. The pope still had some power because he was the one that needed to lift the Society in 1773. But in the old days the Catholic Countries would not have dared to pressure the Pope in that way. At the end of everything the network of alliances became some sort of a 'decentralized network', still with the pope as central, but less powerful. Also, the monarch did not have absolute power anymore so other important people and institutes gathered around the monarch with sometimes as many influences as the king himself. These powers around the monarchy were also the ones who pressured pope Clement XIV to cancel the Society of Jesus in 1773. So the network of alliance was very important for the Jesuits, but even though the Jesuits had in the early years a strong network, it was not proofed against the changes of the modern era.
A.P.
The network that was covered is the network of alliance from the Society of Jesus. This also falls under the heading of religious networks with a framework of institutions. There is also a second framework of kings and additional countries. The network of the Jesuits is a 'centralized' network in which the countries, as 'nodes', are connected with 'ties' to the center point, namely the Vatican. By looking at the demise of the Jesuits from a network theory, the story becomes much clearer and can also connect all countries and popes in a way other theories cannot. This network of alliances has changed in various ways from 1540 to 1773. The large amount of land, money, popularity, alliances with kings, papal privileges and their influence on politics ensured that the Jesuits were considered a great danger. With other words people wanted to get rid of the Society. This was retained by their alliances the pope, Portugal and the kings of the Catholic countries. But in the eighteenth century everything changed. The monarchs did not have absolute power anymore so other men and institutes got a lot more influences. Furthermore, Portugal was no longer a world power and lost his influence. Also, through the Enlightenment there was a power shift in Europe. The pope still had some power because he was the one that needed to lift the Society in 1773. But in the old days the Catholic Countries would not have dared to pressure the Pope in that way. At the end of everything the network of alliances became some sort of a 'decentralized network', still with the pope as central, but less powerful. Also, the monarch did not have absolute power anymore so other important people and institutes gathered around the monarch with sometimes as many influences as the king himself. These powers around the monarchy were also the ones who pressured pope Clement XIV to cancel the Society of Jesus in 1773. So the network of alliance was very important for the Jesuits, but even though the Jesuits had in the early years a strong network, it was not proofed against the changes of the modern era.
A.P.
Further Reading
Alden, D. The Making of an Enterprise: The Society of Jesus in Portugal, its Empire and Beyond 1540-1750. Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1996.
Malking, I. A Small Greek World: Networks in Ancient Mediterranean. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2001.
Palmer, R.R. Joel Colton en Lloyd Kramer. A History of the Modern World to 1815. New York: McGraw-Hill, 2007.
Wright, J. God’s Soldiers: Adventure, Politics, Intrigue, and Power. A History of the Jesuits. New York: Image Doubleday, 2004.
Figures
Pope Paul III: http://www.abcgallery.com/T/titian/titian114.html
Pope Gregory XIV: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pope_Gregory_XIV#/media/File:GregorioPPXVI.jpg
Pope Gregory XV: http://www.wikiart.org/en/guido-reni/portrait-of-pope-gregory-xv-1622
Pope Clement XI: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pope_Clement_XI#/media/File:Clement_XI.jpg
Pope Innocent XIII: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pope_Innocent_XIII#/media/File:InnocientXIII.jpg
Pope Clement XIV: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pope_Clement_XIV
Potala Palace; Lhasa, Tibet: http://ricci.bc.edu/places/lhasa-tibet
Network types: http://fayettevillefreezone.com/human-mesh-networks/
Alden, D. The Making of an Enterprise: The Society of Jesus in Portugal, its Empire and Beyond 1540-1750. Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1996.
Malking, I. A Small Greek World: Networks in Ancient Mediterranean. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2001.
Palmer, R.R. Joel Colton en Lloyd Kramer. A History of the Modern World to 1815. New York: McGraw-Hill, 2007.
Wright, J. God’s Soldiers: Adventure, Politics, Intrigue, and Power. A History of the Jesuits. New York: Image Doubleday, 2004.
Figures
Pope Paul III: http://www.abcgallery.com/T/titian/titian114.html
Pope Gregory XIV: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pope_Gregory_XIV#/media/File:GregorioPPXVI.jpg
Pope Gregory XV: http://www.wikiart.org/en/guido-reni/portrait-of-pope-gregory-xv-1622
Pope Clement XI: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pope_Clement_XI#/media/File:Clement_XI.jpg
Pope Innocent XIII: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pope_Innocent_XIII#/media/File:InnocientXIII.jpg
Pope Clement XIV: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pope_Clement_XIV
Potala Palace; Lhasa, Tibet: http://ricci.bc.edu/places/lhasa-tibet
Network types: http://fayettevillefreezone.com/human-mesh-networks/