Religion and trade: the role of pilgrimage in the Levant Company
Henry Maundrell
Henry
Maundrell, a well-known English clergyman in seventeenth century England. He lived
from 1665 till 1701. In 1696 he went to Aleppo and became chaplain in the English
Levant company. In 1697 he undertook a pilgrimage from Aleppo to Jerusalem. He
described everything he saw in a diary: ‘’A journey from Aleppo to Jerusalem, at Easter, A.D. 1697: to which is added, an account of the author's journey to the banks of the Euphrates at Beer, and to the country of Mesopotamia''. He recorded all his observations on his road to Jerusalem. It became a travel classic in our days.
In the forword he writes to his clerical supervisors in England about what he is going to write and why they have to read it. It looks like he understood the importance of a detailed travel journey across the Holy Land. Maundrell describes with great detail about all the churches, the mosques and other buildings they saw. He paid much attention toward religious buildings and holy acts. Everywhere he came, he tells us the importance of God in a place. Its because of this the historiography never complained about the religious character of this journey. But, when we look further it become clear that Maundrell wasn’t just a clergy and his travel wasn’t just a pilgrimage. Was it also a travel to favor and promote the trade? We have to look closer at the pilgrimage and the trade in the Levant, to answer this question. Firstly, we will look at the Levant Company in the seventeenth century, Secondly, we look closer at pilgrimage and travel guides within the Levant Company. |
The Levant Company in the seventeenth century
An important book about the Levant Company in the seventeenth century is written by Gwilym Ambrose. This book is called ''English Traders at Aleppo (1658-1756)''. He writes in detail about the structure of the trade in the Levant.
In 1581 Queen Elizabeth made a trade agreement with the Ottoman sultan for five years. This was called ‘The Company of Merchants of the Levant’. Harebone was the first English ambassador in the Ottoman Empire. He founded factories at Constantinople and laid foundations for the trade contacts between England and the Ottoman Empire. Aleppo became the most important city for those contacts.
At each factor was an English Consul who had the supervision in that specific place. He had the responsibility within the factor and had to keep in contact with the notables at London. The English who lived in Aleppo were brokers in the trade with The Ottoman Empire. They sometimes were the sons of the English traders and merchants, but often the brokers were Jewish of Armenian.
The most important product in the Levant was English cotton. The brokers had to make sure the quality of the cotton was good when it arrived at Aleppo. Thereafter they tried to sell it for money. Sometimes the cotton was exchanged for raw silk, mohair and goathair. They needed it in the English and European textile industry. Besides they handled in seasoning, currants and nutgalls.
There was a lively English community in seventeenth century Aleppo. They lived in a sort of fort and had hardly any contact with the locals in Aleppo. First they didn’t want to know anything about any other culture other than their own English culture and their English Church.
But, because of this close contacts, the English merchants and traders showed more and more interest in the culture of The Ottoman Empire. Till that time there was little interest in England in The Ottoman Empire. This changed during the seventeenth century, because of the trade within the Levant Company. The English Company at Aleppo wanted to know more about the culture in the Ottoman Empire. They wanted to tell their family in England about life here. This way, English travel writing became popular.
In 1581 Queen Elizabeth made a trade agreement with the Ottoman sultan for five years. This was called ‘The Company of Merchants of the Levant’. Harebone was the first English ambassador in the Ottoman Empire. He founded factories at Constantinople and laid foundations for the trade contacts between England and the Ottoman Empire. Aleppo became the most important city for those contacts.
At each factor was an English Consul who had the supervision in that specific place. He had the responsibility within the factor and had to keep in contact with the notables at London. The English who lived in Aleppo were brokers in the trade with The Ottoman Empire. They sometimes were the sons of the English traders and merchants, but often the brokers were Jewish of Armenian.
The most important product in the Levant was English cotton. The brokers had to make sure the quality of the cotton was good when it arrived at Aleppo. Thereafter they tried to sell it for money. Sometimes the cotton was exchanged for raw silk, mohair and goathair. They needed it in the English and European textile industry. Besides they handled in seasoning, currants and nutgalls.
There was a lively English community in seventeenth century Aleppo. They lived in a sort of fort and had hardly any contact with the locals in Aleppo. First they didn’t want to know anything about any other culture other than their own English culture and their English Church.
But, because of this close contacts, the English merchants and traders showed more and more interest in the culture of The Ottoman Empire. Till that time there was little interest in England in The Ottoman Empire. This changed during the seventeenth century, because of the trade within the Levant Company. The English Company at Aleppo wanted to know more about the culture in the Ottoman Empire. They wanted to tell their family in England about life here. This way, English travel writing became popular.
Henry Maundrell: A pilgrimage?
There's no doubt Maundrell undertook the travel
mainly because of christianity and to visit the holy places mentioned in the
Bible. But it's because of the following passage, we have to look closer at his role in the Levant Company:
‘’….The country people were now every where at plough in the fields, in order to sow cotton. ‘Twas observable that in ploughing they us’d goads of an extraordinary size. Upon measuring of several, I found them about eight foot long, and at the bigger end six inches in circumserence. They were arm’d at the lesser end with a sharp prickle for driving the oxen, and at the other with a small spade, or paddle of iron, strong and massy, for cleansing the plow from the cla that encumbers it in working. Ma we not from hence conjencture, that it was with such a goad as one of these that Shamgar made that prodigious slaughter related of him….’’ In the foreword Maundrell writes a letter to Thomas, the Lord Bishop of Rochester and to Charles Hedges, a judge at the high court in England. With this he justified his travel to Jerusalem. He tells Thomas about the great devotion of the English people who lived in Aleppo. He tells him they are true to the English Church. ‘’…to no communications, but such as the nicest ears need to be offended at; exhibiting in all their actions those best and cruest signs of Christian spirtit, and sincere and cheerful friendship among themselves, a generous charity towards others, and a profound reverence for the liturgy and constitution of the Church of England. It is our first employment every morning to solemnize the dayly service of the church; at which I am sure to have always a devout, a regular and full congregation. (…..) I have never known a society of young gentlemen, wheter in the city, or country, so well disposed in all points as this…’’ It’s clear that the primary task of Maundrell was to make sure everyone believed in the Church of England. No other religion was tolerated at the English Company in the Levant. This was the primary task of a chaplain in seventeenth century Aleppo. But, a chaplain had more tasks in the Company, according to Christine Laidlaw. |
Chaplain
As mentioned, Christine Laidlaw described as one of the only historians the roll of the chaplains at seventeenth century Aleppo. This is important in a research to the roll of Maundrell in the community, because it can tell us more about the influence of the chaplain. In how far was the Chaplain concerned with the trade in the Levant?
Levant chaplains were chosen from clergymen who applied independently for the posts. There are no arguments that these men were recommended by the Church of England. They individually heard of the England Company and wanted to be one of the chaplains. Around five men for the function of chaplain was usual. One man was chosen by an assembly of the company’s officials and merchants in London. Each of them had to preach a seremon. The best of them was chosen as chaplain at one of the factories in The Ottoman Empire. Chaplains were paid an annual gratuity and they were official members of the factory. Chaplain often were high educated English clerics, they were clever and competend men. Almost al of them attended the universities at Oxford and Cambridge. Maundrell had studied at the Oxford University. Maundrell had a high regard and every day he performed daily serviced to a devout congregation in Aleppo. ConclusionIt is clear that Henry Maundrell undertook the pilgrimage, mainly because of religious considerations. But, because of the role the Chaplains played in the Levant Company and because of his foreword to Thomas, Lord Bishop of Rochester and to Charles Hedges, a judge at the high court in England. TIll now, historians agreed about the religious roll of the travel Maundrell undertook. But when we look closer at his tasks and his writings, it was not only religion that played a role in this travel.
Pilgrimage played a role in the Levant Company in the seventeenth century. Maundrell is a good example of this. |
Literature and further readings
Ambrose, Gwilym. ‘’English Traders at Aleppo (1658-1756),’’ The Economic History Review 3, no. 2 (oktober 1931): 246-267.
Bulut, Mehmet. ‘’The Role of the Ottomans and Dutch in the Commercial Integration between the Levant and Atlantic in the Seventeenth Century", Journal of the Economic and Social History of the Orient 45, no.2 (2002): 197-230.
Carruthers, Douglas, ed. Works Issued by the Hakluyt Society. Vol. 63, The Desert Route to India: Being the Journals of Four Travellers by the Great Desert Caravan Route between Aleppo and Basrah, 1745-1751. Farnham, England: Ashgate, 2010.
Darling, Linda T. "Ottoman Politics through British Eyes: Paul Rycaut's 'The Present State of the Ottoman Empire'", Journal of World History 5, no.1 (spring 1994): 71-97.
Epstein, Mortimer. Early History of the Levant Company. S.l.: The Classics Us, 2013.
Faroqhi, Suraiya Pilgrims and Sultans: The Hajj under the Ottomans. new paperback ed. Londen: I. B. Tauris, 2014.
Frangakis-Syrett, Elena. ‘’Market networks and Ottoman-European Commerce, c. 1700-1825,’’ Oriente Moderno Nuova serie, Anno 25 (86), No. 1, the Ottomans and trade (2006), 109-128.
Laidlaw, Christine. The British in the Levant: Trade and Perceptions of the Ottoman Empire in the Eighteenth Century. Library of Ottoman Studies. London: Tauris Academic Studies, 2010.
Suranyi, Anna. The Genius of the English Nation: Travel Writing and National Identity in Early Modern England. Newark: University of Delware Press, 2008.
Willan, T.S. "Some Aspects of English Trade with the Levant in the Sixteenth Century", The English Historical Review 70, no.276 (July 1955): 399-410.
Websites
Daniel Howell, ‘’the Journey of Henry Maundrell’’ https://www.saudiaramcoworld.com/issue/196404/the.journey.of.henry.maundrell.htm (Geraadpleegd: 26 mei 2015).
Primary Sources
Henry Maundrell, A journey from Aleppo to Jerusalem, at Easter, A.D.1697: To which is added, an account of the author's journey to the banks of the Euphrates at Beer, and to the country of Mesopotamia (reproduction of the original, 4th ed., R. Morison).