The Majorcan cartographic school:
Networks and context behind the the fourteenth century Majorcan portolan chart
Introduction
Medieval cartography in christian Europe was dominated by the tradition of the mappamundi. These round world charts did not attempt to depict the known world in a geographical accurate way. Instead, the main goal of the mappamundi was to “construct the faithful about the significant events in christian history rather than to record their precise location” (Woodward, 1987: p. 286). However, during the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries a new type of chart appeared. These are the so called ‘portolan charts’. Due to technological advancements, most notably the introduction of the compass, these charts succeeded in presenting the Mediterranean- and Black Sea regions in astonishing precision and detail.
Although different portolan charts, such as the Carta Pisana (late 13th century), the Dulcert Chart (1339), and the Catalan Atlas (1375) survived, there is little consensus on their function and origins. It is still unknown whether the charts were actually used as tools for navigation or not. However, the biggest mystery surrounding the portolan chart is the origin of the portolan tradition. Both these problems have been heavily debated among cartographic historians such as G. R. Crone, Evelyn Edson, David Woodward, Tony Cambell and H. C. Freiesleben. One of the possible locations argued to be the portolan chart’s origin is the island of Majorca. During the fourteenth century the Majorcan cartographic school received international fame and prestige for their highly detailed and well-produced charts. One of the most detailed and well-known portolan chart which is produced in Majorca is the Catalan Atlas from 1375, currently part of the collection of the Bibliothéque national de France, in Paris.
In order to shed more light on the mystery regarding the use and origin of the portolan chart, this research attempted to examine the networks and contexts behind the fourteenth century Majorcan cartographers and their products, most notably the Catalan Atlas. The main goal was to discover which external factors influenced the production of portolan charts, in which the Catalan Atlas served as a case study. Examining which networks and contexts are visible in the Catalan Atlas might provide a stepping stone for future research regarding the intentions of Majorcan cartographers, and as a result illuminate the actual function of the Majorcan portolan charts.
Medieval cartography in christian Europe was dominated by the tradition of the mappamundi. These round world charts did not attempt to depict the known world in a geographical accurate way. Instead, the main goal of the mappamundi was to “construct the faithful about the significant events in christian history rather than to record their precise location” (Woodward, 1987: p. 286). However, during the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries a new type of chart appeared. These are the so called ‘portolan charts’. Due to technological advancements, most notably the introduction of the compass, these charts succeeded in presenting the Mediterranean- and Black Sea regions in astonishing precision and detail.
Although different portolan charts, such as the Carta Pisana (late 13th century), the Dulcert Chart (1339), and the Catalan Atlas (1375) survived, there is little consensus on their function and origins. It is still unknown whether the charts were actually used as tools for navigation or not. However, the biggest mystery surrounding the portolan chart is the origin of the portolan tradition. Both these problems have been heavily debated among cartographic historians such as G. R. Crone, Evelyn Edson, David Woodward, Tony Cambell and H. C. Freiesleben. One of the possible locations argued to be the portolan chart’s origin is the island of Majorca. During the fourteenth century the Majorcan cartographic school received international fame and prestige for their highly detailed and well-produced charts. One of the most detailed and well-known portolan chart which is produced in Majorca is the Catalan Atlas from 1375, currently part of the collection of the Bibliothéque national de France, in Paris.
In order to shed more light on the mystery regarding the use and origin of the portolan chart, this research attempted to examine the networks and contexts behind the fourteenth century Majorcan cartographers and their products, most notably the Catalan Atlas. The main goal was to discover which external factors influenced the production of portolan charts, in which the Catalan Atlas served as a case study. Examining which networks and contexts are visible in the Catalan Atlas might provide a stepping stone for future research regarding the intentions of Majorcan cartographers, and as a result illuminate the actual function of the Majorcan portolan charts.
Context and networks
Before analyzing the Catalan Atlas it is important to describe the contexts and networks of Majorca and it’s cartographers. During the middle ages the Majorcan society was culturally diverse. Both christians, muslims and jews inhabited the island. This is partly a result of its troubled past. The Balearic islands have been part of different Mediterranean empires, such as the North African Almoravid and Almohad kingdoms. During the reconquista, in which the Iberian christian kingdoms conquered the muslim lands in contemporary Spain and Portugal, Majorca came under control of the kings of Aragon in 1229/1230. During its height, the Kingdom of Aragon stretched from Catalonia to the Duchy of Athens while the Catalan and Majorcan merchants expanded their businesses around the Mediterranean. Majorca, too, was an important centre of trade. Its political situation, strategic position in the Mediterranean with close proximity to North-Africa and role as trading hub resulted in Majorca becoming a crossroads of different religions and cultures.
The Majorcan cartographic school was dominated by Majorca’s jews. Due to persecutions of the jews in North Africa and the relatively tolerant attitude of the kings of Aragon, many jews settled in Majorca. Among these jews were scientists and intellectuals, who were able to interpret Arab sources. This influx of jewish intellectuals which were fluent in Arabic and the Majorcan experience in navigation and seafaring proved to be a productive background for the establishment of a cartographic school. Besides this, the jews of Majorca maintained extensive networks in Iberia, North Africa, Southern France and the other domains of the Kingdom of Aragon. Catalan jews even had personal networks with the Aragonese kings, for whom the jews provided administrative and diplomatic services. This allowed for the use of a high amount of different sources, both of christian and islamic origin, which were incorporated in the portolan charts such as the Catalan Atlas. As a result of the quality of the Majorcan portolan charts and the connections between the jewish cartographers and the higher classes of European society, the Majorcan cartographic school was held in high regard by the royal houses of Aragon, France and Portugal.
Before analyzing the Catalan Atlas it is important to describe the contexts and networks of Majorca and it’s cartographers. During the middle ages the Majorcan society was culturally diverse. Both christians, muslims and jews inhabited the island. This is partly a result of its troubled past. The Balearic islands have been part of different Mediterranean empires, such as the North African Almoravid and Almohad kingdoms. During the reconquista, in which the Iberian christian kingdoms conquered the muslim lands in contemporary Spain and Portugal, Majorca came under control of the kings of Aragon in 1229/1230. During its height, the Kingdom of Aragon stretched from Catalonia to the Duchy of Athens while the Catalan and Majorcan merchants expanded their businesses around the Mediterranean. Majorca, too, was an important centre of trade. Its political situation, strategic position in the Mediterranean with close proximity to North-Africa and role as trading hub resulted in Majorca becoming a crossroads of different religions and cultures.
The Majorcan cartographic school was dominated by Majorca’s jews. Due to persecutions of the jews in North Africa and the relatively tolerant attitude of the kings of Aragon, many jews settled in Majorca. Among these jews were scientists and intellectuals, who were able to interpret Arab sources. This influx of jewish intellectuals which were fluent in Arabic and the Majorcan experience in navigation and seafaring proved to be a productive background for the establishment of a cartographic school. Besides this, the jews of Majorca maintained extensive networks in Iberia, North Africa, Southern France and the other domains of the Kingdom of Aragon. Catalan jews even had personal networks with the Aragonese kings, for whom the jews provided administrative and diplomatic services. This allowed for the use of a high amount of different sources, both of christian and islamic origin, which were incorporated in the portolan charts such as the Catalan Atlas. As a result of the quality of the Majorcan portolan charts and the connections between the jewish cartographers and the higher classes of European society, the Majorcan cartographic school was held in high regard by the royal houses of Aragon, France and Portugal.
The cartographic school of Majorca
As mentioned earlier, the Majorcan cartographers were able to use different types of sources. The most notable examples of these are the travel journals of Marco Polo which provided information on Asia and the Mongol Empire, the works of the Moroccan Ibn Battuta which gave insight in Sub-Saharan Africa, and reports of christian missionaries and Arab traders. Furthermore, it has been argued the iconography used by the Majorcan cartographic school was of Arab and Turkish origin, which found its way into Majorcan cartography through trade routes and networks such as the Silk Route in Asia.
The Majorcan cartographic school, in which the Catalan Atlas is seen as representative, differs from other cartographic schools such as the Italian. Portolan charts from Italy, most notably the mercantile republics of Genoa and Venice, were stylistically less extensive as only the coastal regions of the Mediterranean and its main ports were depicted. This contrasts with the Majorcan cartographic school, whose charts not only depict the simplistic but effective portolan style coastal regions, but also contain elements of the earlier mappamundi. The most striking element is the extensive use of symbolism and iconography. Different rulers, both historical (such as Alexander the Great) as contemporary (such as the Malinese king Mansa Musa and Kublai Khan of the Mongol Empire) are depicted in the Atlas. Besides this, geographical features such as mountains and rivers have been illustrated, together with important cities and trade routes. These aspects are not only characteristic for the Catalan Atlas, but also the entire cartographic school of Majorca.
As mentioned earlier, the Majorcan cartographers were able to use different types of sources. The most notable examples of these are the travel journals of Marco Polo which provided information on Asia and the Mongol Empire, the works of the Moroccan Ibn Battuta which gave insight in Sub-Saharan Africa, and reports of christian missionaries and Arab traders. Furthermore, it has been argued the iconography used by the Majorcan cartographic school was of Arab and Turkish origin, which found its way into Majorcan cartography through trade routes and networks such as the Silk Route in Asia.
The Majorcan cartographic school, in which the Catalan Atlas is seen as representative, differs from other cartographic schools such as the Italian. Portolan charts from Italy, most notably the mercantile republics of Genoa and Venice, were stylistically less extensive as only the coastal regions of the Mediterranean and its main ports were depicted. This contrasts with the Majorcan cartographic school, whose charts not only depict the simplistic but effective portolan style coastal regions, but also contain elements of the earlier mappamundi. The most striking element is the extensive use of symbolism and iconography. Different rulers, both historical (such as Alexander the Great) as contemporary (such as the Malinese king Mansa Musa and Kublai Khan of the Mongol Empire) are depicted in the Atlas. Besides this, geographical features such as mountains and rivers have been illustrated, together with important cities and trade routes. These aspects are not only characteristic for the Catalan Atlas, but also the entire cartographic school of Majorca.
The Catalan Atlas, 1375
The Catalan Atlas is one of the most famous portolan charts made by the cartographic school of Majorca. It is presumed to be produced by the Majorcan jew Abraham Cresques and his son Jafuda Cresques (the latter would later provide his cartographic services to the Portuguese royal family). The Catalan Atlas itself consists of six panels, each 65x50 cm. Two panels provide information regarding navigation, such as a calendar and other useful navigational data. The remaining four panels depict a chart of the known world, ranging from the Canary Islands in the Atlantic to contemporary China. While the Mediterranean is shown in the style of the portolan charts which aims at providing a realistic view of the geographical distances and detailed coastlines, the hinterlands and regions outside the Mediterranean are filled with illustrations which was common in the tradition of the mappamundi. The Atlas, produced in 1375, was presented as a gift from Aragonese king Pedro VI to Charles VI of France. It became part of Charles’ private collection, which later became the Bibliothéque nationale de France where the Atlas is still part of its collection. Although the chart has never been used in practice, the fact that the chart was a gift from king to king illustrates the prestige the Majorcan cartographic school enjoyed. The Catalan Atlas has been shaped by different influences. Some of these are historical, such as the recurrence of the traditions of the mappamundi. An important similarity is the use of symbolism. Also notice the top right corner in Asia, which is round. It has been argued this, too, is an element in the Atlas which has come from the mappamundi. Other influences were more contemporary, such as the information provided by the earlier mentioned journals of Marco Polo and Ibn Battuta. Examining the way in which the economical, political and social contexts became visible in the Catalan Atlas provided some interesting insights. Different elements of the fourteenth century 'reality' are represented in the Atlas. One of these is the 'thinking' in networks by navigators of the Mediterranean. The coastal regions are not very detailed, it are the cities and ports which have received most attention. The regions between them received considerable less attention. This illustrates the way navigators saw the world; not continues coastlines but simply locations, or ‘nodes’, at the end of their routes. This way of thinking also presents itself in the Atlas. |
Another insight is the way fourteenth century politics is depicted in the Catalan Atlas. Due to the highly decentralized political structure and overlapping authority of different actors such as feudal lords and religious institutions, it wasn't possible to depict regional sovereignty in medieval cartography. However, the Atlas does depict a high amount of flags above cities, colored in the coat of arms of the ruling dynasty. This way the decentralized nature of fourteenth century European politics is represented in the Atlas, in which not regional authority but ‘centers of authority’ are shown. However, this is not the case for the Mediterranean islands which are colored. This proves a certain type of ‘othering’, in which the inhabitants of the islands presented themselves and their identity differently than their mainland counterparts.
Final remarks
By examining the networks and contexts which are hidden behind the Majorcan portolan charts such as the Catalan Atlas from 1375, it has become clear these are more than simply charts. Majorcan portolan charts illuminate the way fourteenth century inhabitants of the Mediterranean region saw the world around them. Even more, the charts are not only influenced by external factors, they are the products of these influences and fourteenth century contexts and networks. Because of this, the portolan charts should not only be seen as a chart, but also as a 'picture' representing fourteenth century life and worldviews. This perspective makes the Majorcan portolan charts highly interesting as subject for research for cartographic- and Mediterranean historians alike.
By C. A. van Vliet
By examining the networks and contexts which are hidden behind the Majorcan portolan charts such as the Catalan Atlas from 1375, it has become clear these are more than simply charts. Majorcan portolan charts illuminate the way fourteenth century inhabitants of the Mediterranean region saw the world around them. Even more, the charts are not only influenced by external factors, they are the products of these influences and fourteenth century contexts and networks. Because of this, the portolan charts should not only be seen as a chart, but also as a 'picture' representing fourteenth century life and worldviews. This perspective makes the Majorcan portolan charts highly interesting as subject for research for cartographic- and Mediterranean historians alike.
By C. A. van Vliet
Further reading
Abulafia, David. A Mediterranean emporium: The Catalan kingdom of Majorca. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1994.
Cambell, Tony. “Portolan Charts from the Late Thirteenth Century to 1500.” In Cartography in Prehistoric, Ancient, and Medieval Europe and the Mediterranean. Vol. 1, eds. J. B. Harley en David Woodward. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1987: 371-463.
Crone, G. R. Maps and their Makers: An Introduction to the History of Cartography. Hamden: Archon Books, 1978.
Edson, Evelyn. The World Map 1300-1492: The Persistence of Tradition and Transformation. Baltimore: The John Hopkins University Press, 2007.
Harvey, P. D. A. “Medieval Maps: An Introduction.” In Cartography in Prehistoric, Ancient, and Medieval Europe and the Mediterranean. Vol. 1, eds. J. B. Harley en David Woodward. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1987: 283-285.
Steinberg, Philip E. “Insularity, Sovereignty and Statehood: The Respresentation of Islands on Portolan Charts and the Construction of the Territorial State.” Geogrifska Annaler 87 B, 4 (2005), Swedish Society for Anthropology and Geography: 253-265.
Woodward, David. “Medieval mappaemundi.” In Cartography in Prehistoric, Ancient, and Medieval Europe and the Mediterranean. Vol. 1, eds. J. B. Harley en David Woodward. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1987: 286-370.
Woodward, David. “Reality, Symbolism, Time, and Space in Medieval World Maps.” Annals of the Association of American Geographers 75, no. 4 (December 1985): 510-521.
Illustrations (from top to bottom)
Hereford Mappamundi: "Hereford Mappa Mundi." Wikipedia. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hereford_Mappa_Mundi (accessed June 3th, 2015).
Map of the Kingdom of Aragon: "Once upon a time: Crown of Aragon 1330." Map Collection: Collection of Interesting and Artistic Maps.
https://mapcollection.wordpress.com/tag/kingdom/ (accessed June 3th, 2015).
Carta Pisana: "Carta Pisana." Wikipedia.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carta_Pisana (accessed June 3th, 2015).
Informational panels of the Catalan Atlas: "#235 The Catalan Atlas." Cartographic Images.
http://cartographic-images.net/Cartographic_Images/235_Catalan_Atlas.html (accessed June 3th, 2015).
Mediterranean in the Catalan Atlas: The Cresques Project.
http://www.cresquesproject.net/home (accessed June 3th, 2015).
Asia in the Catalan Atlas: "#235 The Catalan Atlas." Cartographic Images.
http://cartographic images.net/Cartographic_Images/235_Catalan_Atlas.html (accessed June 3th, 2015).