The Necessity for the Dutch Republic to sign
a Peace Treaty with Algiers:
How a Diary contributes to the Importance of the Jewish Intermediaries' Social Networks for Diplomats
Figure 1. Lieve Pietersz Verschuier painted this oil painting around 1670 and it's named Action between the Dutch fleet and the Barbary. Source: http://collections.rmg.co.uk/collections/objects/12341.html (accessed June 2, 2015).
Figure 2. The corsair city Algiers around 1700. From a map in the British Museum. Source: http://www.gutenberg.org/files/22169/22169-h/22169-h.htm (accessed June 2, 2015).
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Introduction
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The Dutch Diplomat Thomas Hees' Diary:
Journael ofte Dagh-Register van de reyse naar Algier gedaan int jaar 1675
Important Jewish intermediaries for Thomas Hees:
"Jacob de Paz naar onderlinge overlegginge en goetvinden tussen ons bijden, nevens David Cohen, een Jode hier van geboorte (...) Dese Cohen heeft grote intrgues met Baba Haze en de familie van den Day (Hadji Mohammed Treki). Zij alle zullen bijna niet van belang doen zonder zijn raat en goedvinden. Hij heeft met de rijkste in de stat veel te doen."
These sentences from his diary are suggesting that these Jewish intermediaries' social networks were important for diplomats. Though I am using Hees' diary as a starting point for my research, it is necessary to use also secondary literature in order to find out if the things he wrote were actually true. In general, we should be very cautious when reading a diary. Secondary literature confirms that Jewish intermediaries were very important. That the Dutch Republic were choosing Jews as intermediaries is no coincidence as we will see. In 1492 many Jews were expelled from Spain and Portugal. They emigrated to Europe and to the huge Ottoman Empire such as Egypt, Morocco and Algiers. Jews were capable to easily adjust to their new environment by learning new languages and setting up new trade businesses. They were smart enough to establish new relationships with important persons to gain advantages. Moreover, Jewish social networks were connected with each other over the whole Mediterranean region. These networks did not stop on the border of a country and therefore these Jewish networks are cross-border. Furthermore, the Jews were very loyal to each other and when needed they provided assistance with their social networks to help others. Not surprisingly, Jews intermediaries were offering their services to different nations. For example the Jew Samuel Pallace, who was working for the sultan of Morocco, Spain and the Polish King. In addition, the Dutch Republic send the Jew Henrico d' Azevedo in 1661-1662 to negotiate with Algiers in order to free the captured Dutch sailors who were now slaves. As a consequence Jewish intermediaries proved to be very important for their connections with important figures. This is also the case when we are reading Hees' diary. De Paz and Cohen had really good connections with the leaders of Algiers: the general Babba Hassan and the Dey Hadji Mohammed Treki. The dey was the title given to the rulers of Algiers. Therefore, Jacob de Paz is an excellent example of a useful Jewish intermediary. He studied medicines in the Netherlands so he could speak Dutch. This was important for the communication with Hees. Moreover, he was already living in Algiers since 1671. It is reasonable to think that de Paz could also speak the Ottoman language. Furthermore, he was a merchant from Livorno and was part of a large Jewish trade network. In addition, de Paz needed help from other Jews such as David Cohen to help the Dutch diplomat. From the sentences of Hees' diary it is clear that Cohen had better connections with the leaders of the corsair city than de Paz. Not surprisingly, that de Paz and Cohen were often mentioned in Hees' diary. With these excellent Jewish intermediaries, Hees should have an easy task to sign a peace treaty with Algiers . However, since his arrival in the corsair city on the 12th of October 1675 the peace treaty was signed four years later on the 29th of April 1679. Why did Hees have to wait so long? This will be explained below. |
Figure 3. Painting of Thomas Hees with his Nephews Jan and Andries Hees and a Servant by Michiel van Musscher in 1687.
Source: https://www.rijksmuseum.nl/en/collection/SK-C-1215 (accessed June 6, 2015). Figure 4. This map shows the expulsion
of the Spanish Jews and the many places where they emigrated and where the Jews had their
settlements. This map gives an idea how vast a Jewish social network
could be.
Source: http://dilemma-x.net/2014/02/15/spain-opens-door-to-sephardic-jews/ (accessed June 3, 2015). |
A Global Perspective: the Interconnectedness of the Social Networks of Diplomats with the Political Agenda of the European Super Powers and Algiers
Figure 5. A map of the great European Empires of the early modern period. This map gives an impression how many continents. countries, regions, cities and villages were connected with each other. Source: https://c1.staticflickr.com/5/4106/5015802377_b87a609309_z.jpg
(accessed June 3, 2015). |
Figure 6. The size of the Ottoman Empire around 1700. Algiers was a part of the Ottoman Empire and the European super powers were often at war with the Ottomans and each other.
Source: http://2.bp.blogspot.com/-UDMsVywN3uc/T1bDEf5lijI/AAAAAAAAAGs/1EAMdFF8oWI/s1600/Islamic_States_1700_lg.jpg (accessed June 3, 2015). |
Algiers was part of the Ottoman Empire and when the Sultan needed the Barbary corsairs, they helped him by sending their fleet as for example in the battle of Lepanto in 1571. Figure 5 and 6 clearly demonstrates the huge European and Ottoman possessions in the world. Therefore, we can really speak of a global perspective and the diplomats needed to be aware of the slippery dynamic political situation that suddenly could change alliances.
Before 1648 the relationship between the corsair city and the Dutch Republic was quite good, because their main enemy was Spain. In the end, the Spanish had to fight too many enemies and lost its significance as mightiest empire in the world. After 1648 the French, Great Britain and the Dutch Republic were fighting each other to protect their possessions, trade interests and expanding their influence sphere. Therefore, diplomats had the difficult task to negotiate for the interests of their "master".
Though Algiers was part of the Ottoman empire, the corsair city was quite independent, so it had its own foreign policy. When the European countries were finding out that making treaties with the Sultan was meaningless to protect their ships from the Barbary corsairs, they were sending their diplomats directly to their cities for negotiations. Algiers was eager to make favorable treaties to gain economic profit. European diplomats and their intermediaries were important to make it possible to sign a peace treaty.
Remember, the corsair city needed to be at war with at least one of the super powers. Algiers was heavily depended on its corsair activities. After 1648 England and France became more stronger with their better build and equipped ships than these of the Dutch. Consequently, Algiers preferred to make peace treaties with France and Great Britain than with the Dutch Republic. This is the main reason why it took so long for Algiers to sign a peace treaty with Hees. While he was in Algiers the leaders of the corsair city told him to be patient. In reality they wanted to see what France and England had to offer. The corsair city had an excellent negotiation position, because the European countries were often at war with each other. The canny corsair city exploited the current political situation. However, the English and Algiers were again at war with each other after failed negotiations. Though the corsair city hoped to make a peace treaty with Great Britain even when they were at war, the British terms for an agreement were finally rejected by the Algerians. As a result, the Dutch Republic and the corsair city signed their peace treaty on April 29 1679. Hees diplomatic missions was accomplished and he left the corsair city on the 8th of May 1680. This treaty lasted until 1686 when Algiers continued to seizure Dutch ships. When the French, the English and the Dutch combined their forces the infamous corsair city was defeated in 1726.
Before 1648 the relationship between the corsair city and the Dutch Republic was quite good, because their main enemy was Spain. In the end, the Spanish had to fight too many enemies and lost its significance as mightiest empire in the world. After 1648 the French, Great Britain and the Dutch Republic were fighting each other to protect their possessions, trade interests and expanding their influence sphere. Therefore, diplomats had the difficult task to negotiate for the interests of their "master".
Though Algiers was part of the Ottoman empire, the corsair city was quite independent, so it had its own foreign policy. When the European countries were finding out that making treaties with the Sultan was meaningless to protect their ships from the Barbary corsairs, they were sending their diplomats directly to their cities for negotiations. Algiers was eager to make favorable treaties to gain economic profit. European diplomats and their intermediaries were important to make it possible to sign a peace treaty.
Remember, the corsair city needed to be at war with at least one of the super powers. Algiers was heavily depended on its corsair activities. After 1648 England and France became more stronger with their better build and equipped ships than these of the Dutch. Consequently, Algiers preferred to make peace treaties with France and Great Britain than with the Dutch Republic. This is the main reason why it took so long for Algiers to sign a peace treaty with Hees. While he was in Algiers the leaders of the corsair city told him to be patient. In reality they wanted to see what France and England had to offer. The corsair city had an excellent negotiation position, because the European countries were often at war with each other. The canny corsair city exploited the current political situation. However, the English and Algiers were again at war with each other after failed negotiations. Though the corsair city hoped to make a peace treaty with Great Britain even when they were at war, the British terms for an agreement were finally rejected by the Algerians. As a result, the Dutch Republic and the corsair city signed their peace treaty on April 29 1679. Hees diplomatic missions was accomplished and he left the corsair city on the 8th of May 1680. This treaty lasted until 1686 when Algiers continued to seizure Dutch ships. When the French, the English and the Dutch combined their forces the infamous corsair city was defeated in 1726.
Conclusion
It is obvious that Hees could not do anything on his own without the help of Jewish intermediaries. They were very important for the diplomat, because they knew different languages and had good connections with the leaders of Algiers. In addition, the intermediaries could use their social networks to get more vital information or get more help from other persons such as David Cohen. In the end, he had better connections with leaders of the corsair city than de Paz.
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Figure 7. The Dutch and English navy fought each other often as this painting is showing us and it was painted by Abraham Willearts who lived from 1577 till 1664. The name of the painting is Action between Ships in the First Dutch War, 1652-1654.
Source: http://www.bbc.co.uk/arts/yourpaintings/paintings/action-between-ships-in-the-first-dutch-war-16521654-176132(accessed June 4, 2015). If you want to know more about the Barbary corsairs then listen to this interesting audiobook about their history from the 15th till the 19th century.
YouTube source: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=0D1tmxWxJy8 (accessed June 4, 2015). |
Sources and Suggested Further Reading
Hees, Thomas. “Journael ofte Dagh-Register van de reyse naar Algier gedaan int jaar 1675” in H. Hardenberg. Tussen zeerovers en Christenslaven; Noordafrikaanse reisjournalen. Leiden: Uitgevers-Mij, 1950.
Coffrie, Caroline. Gezant in Barbarije: Thomas Hees, commissaris van de Staten-Generaal in Algiers, 1675-1680. Master scriptie Universiteit van Amsterdam, 2010.
De Groot, Alexander H. “Ottoman North Africa and the Dutch Republic in the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries”. Revue de l Occident musulman et de la Méditerranée N.39, 1985: 131-147.
Davis, Robert C. Christian slaves, Muslim masters: white slavery in the Mediterranean, the Barbary Coast, and Italy, 1500-1800. Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan, 2003.
García-Arenal, Mercedes and Gerard Wiegers. A man of Three Worlds: Samuel Pallache, a Moroccan Jew in Catholic and Protestant Europe. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press 2003.
Hirschberg, H. Z. A History of the Jews in North Africa volume II from the Ottoman conquests to the present time. Leiden: Brill, 1981.
Israel, Jonathan. De joden in Europa 1550-1750. Franeker: Van Wijnen, 2003.
Koopmans, Johannes en Cedric Regtop. “Zeeschuimers en verachtelijke Barbaaren? Nederlandse nieuwsfragmenten over Barbarije in de achttiende eeuw“. Tijdschrift voor zeegeschiedenis 21 (2002): 34 – 48.
Korteweg, Joke. Kaperbloed en koopmansgeest: ‘Legale zeeroof’ door de eeuwen heen. Amsterdam: Balans, 2006.
Krieken, Gerard van. Kapers en Kooplieden: De betrekkingen tussen Algiers en Nederland. Amsterdam: De Bataafsche Leeuw, 1999.
Ressel, Magnus. The Dutch-Algerian war of 1715-1726. (not yet published).
Rogan, Eugene. The Arabs. London: Penguin Books, 2011.
Coffrie, Caroline. Gezant in Barbarije: Thomas Hees, commissaris van de Staten-Generaal in Algiers, 1675-1680. Master scriptie Universiteit van Amsterdam, 2010.
De Groot, Alexander H. “Ottoman North Africa and the Dutch Republic in the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries”. Revue de l Occident musulman et de la Méditerranée N.39, 1985: 131-147.
Davis, Robert C. Christian slaves, Muslim masters: white slavery in the Mediterranean, the Barbary Coast, and Italy, 1500-1800. Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan, 2003.
García-Arenal, Mercedes and Gerard Wiegers. A man of Three Worlds: Samuel Pallache, a Moroccan Jew in Catholic and Protestant Europe. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press 2003.
Hirschberg, H. Z. A History of the Jews in North Africa volume II from the Ottoman conquests to the present time. Leiden: Brill, 1981.
Israel, Jonathan. De joden in Europa 1550-1750. Franeker: Van Wijnen, 2003.
Koopmans, Johannes en Cedric Regtop. “Zeeschuimers en verachtelijke Barbaaren? Nederlandse nieuwsfragmenten over Barbarije in de achttiende eeuw“. Tijdschrift voor zeegeschiedenis 21 (2002): 34 – 48.
Korteweg, Joke. Kaperbloed en koopmansgeest: ‘Legale zeeroof’ door de eeuwen heen. Amsterdam: Balans, 2006.
Krieken, Gerard van. Kapers en Kooplieden: De betrekkingen tussen Algiers en Nederland. Amsterdam: De Bataafsche Leeuw, 1999.
Ressel, Magnus. The Dutch-Algerian war of 1715-1726. (not yet published).
Rogan, Eugene. The Arabs. London: Penguin Books, 2011.